Chlorophyll which is also known as the chlorophyl is a green pigment that is found in almost all algae, plants & cyanobacteria. The name Chlorophyll is derived from the Greek words, chloros which means “green” , phyllon which means “leaf”. It is an very important biomolecule and it is critical in photosynthesis, that allows plants to obtain the energy needed for the plant from light. It absorbs the light most strongly in the blue portion of the electromagnetic spectrum which is followed by the red portion. However, red portion is a poor absorber of green and also the near-green portions of the spectrum, hence the green color of the chlorophyll containing tissues.Chlorophyll was the first isolated by Mr. Joseph Bienaimé Caventou and Mr. Pierre Joseph Pelletier in the year 1817.

The Chlorophyll molecules are specifically arranged in and around the photosystems which are embedded in the thylakoid membranes of the chloroplasts. In these complexes, the chlorophyll serves a couple of primary functions. The function of the vast majority of it (up to several 100 molecules per photosystem) is to absorb the light and transfer that light energy by using resonance energy transfer to a specific chlorophyll pair in reaction center of  photosystems.

The couple of currently accepted photosystem units are the Photosystem II and the Photosystem I, which have their own distinct reaction center named chlorophylls, named as the P680 and P700, respectively.These pigments are named after the wavelength is measured in nanometers of their red peak absorption at maximum. The identity, function and the spectral properties of the types of it in each photosystem are unique and determined by one another and the protein structure surrounding it. Once extracted from the protein into a solvent such as the acetone or methanol, these chlorophyll pigments can be separated in a simple paper called as the chromatography experiment and based on the number of polar groups between the chlorophyll a and the chlorophyll b, will chemically separate out on the paper.

What is Chlorophyll? is a post from: Universal Ramblings

The Aerospatiale-BAC Concorde mostly known as Concorde was a product of Anglo-French government treaty which combined the manufacturing efforts of Aerospatiale and the British Aircraft Corporation, it is a turbojet-powered supersonic passenger flight.This is called as A Supersonic Transport(SST). Concorde started it’s service in 1976 and continued commercial flights for 27 years.

Concorde flew regular transatlantic flights from London HEathrow and Paris-Charles de Gaulle Airport to New York & Washington Dulles, it flew at record speeds which took only half the time taken by other flights to reach the destination.Only 20 Concorde flights were built and their development represented a substantial economic loss, in addition to which Air France and British Airways were subsidised by their governments to buy them.With the crash took place on 25 July 2000 and due to some other factors it retired from service on 26 November 2003.

Construction of two prototypes began on Febraury 1965, Concorde 001 was built by Aerospatiale at Toulouse while BAC at Filton, Bristol built Concorde 002.Concorde 001 was tested on 2 March 1969 from Toulouse piloted by Mr. Andre Turcat.On 9 April 1969 the first UK-built Concorde flew from Filton to RAF Fairford which was piloted by Mr. Brian Trubshaw.

Based on Avro Vulcan strategic bomber the Concorde had 4 olympus engines, it is a delta-winged aircraft, it was the first airliner to have fly-by-wire flight-control system, the avionics of Concorde were unique because it was the first commercial aircraft to employ hybrid circuits.Pierre Satre along with his deputy Sir Archibald Russell were the designers for this project.

It’s drooping nose was a compromise between three important issues, the need for a streamlined design to reduce drag and increase aerodynamic efficiency in flight and the need for the pilot to see properly during taxi, takeoff, and landing operations.

Concorde was normally perceived as a privilege of the rich, but special circular or one-way (with return by other flight or ship) charter flights were arranged to bring a trip within the means of moderately well-off enthusiasts.It is a symbol of great national pride to many in the UK and France, it was thought as the French aircraft in France, while it was thought as British in UK.

What is Concorde? is a post from: Universal Ramblings

The periodicity and recurrence of solar (and lunar) eclipses is governed by the Saros cycle. It is a period of approximately 6,585.3 days (about 18 years 11 days 8 hours.) When two eclipses are separated by a period of one Saros, they almost share the same geometry. The eclipses occur at the same node with the Moon at nearly the same distance from Earth and at the same time of the year, except that the eclipse’s path will moves a third of the way west and a little north, on the Earth’s surface from the last eclipse occurrence. Thus, the Saros is useful for organizing eclipses into families or series. Each series typically last about 12 to 13 centuries and contains 70 or more eclipses.

The total solar eclipse of July 22, 2009 is the 37th member of Saros 136. The first eclipse of this cycle began with a small partial eclipse on June 14, 1360 off the coast of Antarctica. Throughout the 20th century, Saros 136 continued to produce exceptionally long duration total solar eclipse, with tracks passing across the equator. The eclipse of May 29, 1919 was particularly noteworthy and interesting because it was the first solar eclipse used to measure the gravitational deflection of starlight by the Sun as predicted by Einstein’s general theory of relativity.

The June 20, 1955 total solar eclipse was particularly interesting to all of us here because it is the longest duration of all total solar eclipses belonging to the Saros 136 with a maximum duration of 7 minutes 8 seconds, and which passed over the Philippines, including Manila. This eclipse is the longest recorded total solar eclipse. The 2009 eclipse has a maximum duration of 6 minutes 39 seconds although it will occur in the Pacific Ocean. So I have decided to lead the ALP team to Wuhan, China as I think this is the best area to observe this eclipse although at the expense of a much shorter duration but with a better chance of clear sky during the eclipse duration.

As the partial eclipse progress, the temperature drops noticeably. This can also affect the focus of cameras and telescopes which should be checked once in a while as totality approaches.

The total phase of an eclipse is accompanied by the onset of a rapidly darkening sky whose appearance resembles evening twilight about half an hour after sunset. It gives an observer an excellent opportunity to view some planets as well as bright stars in the daytime sky.

A total solar eclipse is probably the best and most spectacular astronomical event that many people will experience in their lifetime! There is a great deal of interest in observing solar eclipses, and thousands of astronomers (both amateur and professional) travel around the world just to observe and photograph them.

A solar eclipse can offer us an opportunity to see a natural phenomenon that illustrates the basic principles of science and mathematics. Some examples are the use of pinhole cameras as well as telescopes or binoculars leads to an understanding of how optics work in these devices; the rise and fall of environmental light levels during an eclipse illustrate the principles of radiometry and photometry; the observation of how plants and animals behave during the eclipse’s entire duration; and, the monitoring of the rise and fall of temperature during the entire eclipse period, etc.

Observing the Sun, however, can be dangerous if proper precautions are not taken into account. The solar radiation that reaches the Earth’s surface ranges from ultraviolet (UV) radiation at wavelengths longer than 290nm to radio waves in the meter range.

The tissues in the eye transmit a substantial part of the radiation in between 380-400nm to the light sensitive retina at the back of our eye. While environmental exposure to UV radiation is known to cause accelerated aging of the outer layers of the eye and the development of cataracts, the primary concern over improper viewing of the Sun during an eclipse is the development of eclipse blindness or retinal burns. The result can be temporary or permanent, depending on the severity of the damage.

When one looks repeatedly, or for a long duration of time, at the Sun without proper eye protection, this can cause retinal damage accompanied by thermal injury – the high level of visible and near-infrared radiation causes heating that literally cooks the exposed tissue. This thermal injury destroys the rods and cones, creating a small blind area! The great danger to vision is significant because of the fact that the injuries occur without nay feeling of pain (the retina doesn’t have any pain receptors) and the visual effects do not become obvious for at least several hours after the damage is done! Viewing through the telescope and binoculars without proper filtration can result in immediate or instant eye damage because of the high irradiance level in the magnified image.

The only time that the Sun can be viewed safely with the naked eye is during TOTALITY only. It is NEVER SAFE TO LOOK AT THE SUN DURING PARTIAL OR ANNULAR ECLIPSES, OR PARTIAL PHASES OF A TOTAL SOLAR ECLIPSE!!!! So what are the safe ways or techniques to observe the solar eclipse?

Solar Eclipse 2009 is a post from: Universal Ramblings

It is also a surprisingly accurate method of determining what your potentials and limitations are when it comes to social relationships, career and love. It can also be a help you realize where you fit in terms of the “big picture” as well remind you of your original dreams and aspirations.

Each letter of the alphabet has a numeric value that is associated with a related cosmic vibration. The sum of the numbers in your birth date and the sum of value derived from the letters in the name provide an interrelation of symbolic information. These numbers can reveal a great deal about your character, your purpose in life, what motivates you, and what talents you have yet to exploit in life.

Like astrology, numerology can trace its roots back many centuries. The basic idea behind numerology is the numbers encoded into our unique individual birth names and birth date influences that who we are to some extent.

A Brief History of Numerology

Numerology is one of the world’s oldest forms of metaphysical communication and interpretation. In ancient times, primitive tribes used numbers to communicate and trade ideas. Today numerology is an intriguing fusion of cabalism, religion and occult divination.

Nobody really knows the exact origins of numerology, but both Kabbalists and the ancient Egyptians practiced it many ages before the birth of Christ.

Numerologists maintain that every number expresses a cosmic vibration as well as a mathematical quantity. Both Pythogaras (530 BC) and Agrippa (1534 AD) elaborated on this concept that all things in the universe are associated with a number. Both mathematicians surmised that numbers embody both a tangible (mathematical) and intangible (spiritual) quantity.

In the early twentieth century, the science of numerology was revived by a series of books published from 1911-1917 by L. Dow Balliett. In the 1930′s the subject once again was expounded by the great mystic -Florence Campbell. These two writers developed most of the formulas that are used today to reduce names down to numbers to decipher future events.

Modern numerologists follow the same principles as established by Balliett and Campbell but have added psychological, behavioral and personality testing components to the interpretation of numerical equations.

Numbers, Their Meanings & Affinities

For the purposes of Numerology, the numbers 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 and 9 are considered.

Given below is a summary of what each of these numbers stand for, and the numbers that they are friendly and unfriendly with.

1
One is the number of singularity, control, dominance, skill and will power.

1 is friendly with 1, 3, 4, 5, 7 and 9; and unfriendly with 2, 6 and 8.

2
Two is the number of duality, co-operation, emotion, intuition, secrecy and diplomacy.

2 is friendly with 2, 4, 6 and 9 while it is unfriendly with 1, 3, 5, 7 and 8.

3
Three is the number of creation, expression, love, affection and family life.

3 is friendly with 1, 3, 5, 6, 7, 8 and 9 and unfriendly with 2 and 4.

4
Four is the number of stability, discipline, a methodical nature, intellectual capability, and balance.

4 is friendly with 1, 2, 4, 5, 7, 8 and 9 and unfriendly with 3 and 6.

5
Five is the number of travel, communication, new experiences, change and freedom.

5 is friendly with 1, 3, 4, 5, 7 and 8 and unfriendly with 2, 6 and 9.

6
Six is the number of rewards of hard work, harmony, community relations, beauty and rhythm.

6 is friendly with 2, 3, 6 and 9 and unfriendly with 1, 4, 5, 7 and 8.

7
Seven is the number of the intellectual, culture, invention, responsibility, and philosophy.

7 is friendly with 1, 3, 4, 5, 7, 8 and 9 and unfriendly with 2 and 6.

8
Eight is the number of change, balance, transformation and endurance.

8 is friends with 3, 4, 5, 7 and 8 and not friends with 1, 2, 6 and 9.

9
Nine is the number of enthusiasm, energy, quarrels, war and aggression.

9 is friendly with 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 7 and 9 while it is unfriendly with 5 and 8.

Conclusion

Based on this data one can look at what each number stands for and thus analyze the compatibility within relationships.

Also, while all this may be true, it is also wise to look at the underlying nature of each person and their emotional and psychological make-up to determine compatibility factors within a relationship.

Numerology, thus, stands as a guide towards explaining several of these characteristics and helps one attain a deeper level of understanding within one’s relationships.

Intro to Numerology is a post from: Universal Ramblings

Speleology , systematic exploration of caves , popularly called spelunking. It includes the measuring and mapping of caves and reporting on the flora and fauna found in them. One application of speleology is the tracing of the movement of underground waters to prevent water pollution.

The study of caves has a number of practical and theoretical implications, with professionals in this field being known as speleologists. People who want to pursue careers in this discipline can choose to study at universities with a speleology department, or look for colleges with branches of the sciences which would be relevant to speleologists.

Caves have held a great deal of fascination for humans for centuries. They have served as sites for shelter, religious rituals, and punishment, and many societies have superstitions or beliefs about caves. It wasn’t until the 19th century, however, that people really started taking the study of caves seriously, looking at it as a science rather than a hobby. Many researchers realized that the study of caves had very real scientific, economic, and cultural implications which could benefit from serious consideration and exploration.

Obviously, speleology does require some field work. Many speleologists actively visit caves so that they can study the natural cave environment while mapping caves and taking data, and some researchers actually start out as amateur spelunkers before getting more interested in the scientific aspect of caving. As with other sciences which have a field component, speleology requires physical fitness and some interest in outdoor activities, as well as an ability to use field equipment ranging from climbing supplies to ground penetrating radar.

Once in a cave, researchers can look at the geology, studying the rocks and minerals present and collecting clues about how the cave formed, and how it will progress. Many speleologists are very interested in the natural formations which appear in caves, and how these formations develop. They also look at the organisms which inhabit caves, ranging from plants and animals specifically adapted to the underground environment to creatures which use caves as temporary structures.

Speleology can also involve the study of underground bodies of water, which can be extremely useful when people want to learn more about a water supply. The study of caves is also critical in industries like mining, where people routinely enter caves, both natural and manufactured, and it is important to know about the geology and morphology of the cave environment. Some archaeologists also study speleology, since caves are sometimes rich in archaeological material, as do biologists interested in the interactions between the cave environment and the surface world.

Speleology: Science of Exploring Underground Spaces is a post from: Universal Ramblings